The Social Science Spectrum is a peer-reviewed journal published by the Society for Scientific Aptitude, dedicated to promoting scientific aptitude and liberal education in society. The journal welcomes original contributions from scholars and researchers across the broad spectrum of social sciences, including economics, demography, gender studies, anthropology, political science, sociology, history, and related interdisciplinary fields. All the submissions are to be made only through e-mail to socialsciencespectrum@gmail.com. Currently, the journal does not process articles submitted online through registration.
Targeting the Lagging Behind: Child Undernutrition in Aspirational Districts of India
Although India has shown sustained socio-economic development, child malnutrition remains a major public health concern with pronounced regional disparities. The Government of India launched the Aspirational District Programme (ADP) in 2018 to accelerate development in socioeconomically lagging behind districts. The present study assesses the level, trends and determinants in child nutritional status in aspirational and non-aspiration districts in India. Two rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS- 4 and 5) were used for the present study. Child malnutrition was assessed using standard anthropometric indicators—stunting, wasting and underweight. Descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression techniques were used for the data analysis. Further, Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition analysis was applied to identify factors contributing to nutritional gaps between aspirational (ADs) and non-aspiration districts (Non-ADs). Findings reveal a consistently higher prevalence of stunting, severe stunting, underweight and severe underweight among children in ADs compared with Non-ADs. Children in aspirational districts had significantly higher odds of stunting and underweight even after controlling other background characteristics. Maternal education, maternal nutritional status, household wealth, caste affiliation, birth order and low birth weight emerged as key determinants of undernutrition. Districts with initially high prevalence of undernutrition demonstrated greater improvements over time, whereas districts with lower baseline prevalence showed stagnation or deterioration. Decomposition results indicate that maternal and household characteristics account for a substantial share of nutritional disparities across districts. The study underscores that strengthening maternal nutrition, education and targeted programme implementation is critical to achieving equitable reductions in child undernutrition and meeting national and global nutrition targets.As
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Does CO2 emission Cause Average Life Expectancy in BRIC nations to Decline? Evidence from Granger Causality Test
Air pollution not only creates environmental degradation or climate change, rather it also causes serious health issues ranging from respiratory problems to allergies. This makes it a concern for human capital, leading to serious economic consequences. This paper tries to analyse the causality between environmental degradation and health standards. The Granger Causality test has been applied to check the association between CO2 emission and life expectancy in the BRIC nations. The results found that CO2 emissions and average life expectancy have bidirectional causality. The study recommends that policymakers must focus on reducing CO2 emissions in order to achieve longer life expectancy.
Economic Agency and Patriarchal Backlash: Women's Occupation and the Risk of Spousal Violence in India
Women's economic participation is widely regarded as a pathway to empowerment, yet its relationship with intimate partner violence (IPV) remains contested in patriarchal contexts where employment may provoke male backlash rather than confer protection. Using data from India's National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21), this study examines associations between women's occupational status and spousal violence among 62,381 ever-married women aged 18-49. Occupation was categorised as not employed, daily-wage, and salaried. Binary logistic regression estimated associations with physical, sexual, emotional, and any spousal violence, while interaction models assessed whether asset ownership, internalised misogyny, decision-making autonomy, and the partner pay gap moderated the employment–violence relationship. Overall, 26.8 percent of women reported at least one form of spousal violence in the preceding 12 months. Daily-wage workers were significantly more likely to experience all forms of violence (AOR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.12-1.23), while salaried employment showed no significant independent association. Asset ownership amplified risk across all employment categories, consistent with patriarchal backlash, whereas decision-making autonomy operated as a meaningful protective factor, particularly among salaried women. Partner controlling behaviour and alcohol consumption were the strongest predictors overall. These findings indicate that women's economic participation does not uniformly reduce spousal violence and may heighten vulnerability when employment is precarious or unaccompanied by genuine domestic agency. Policies promoting women's economic inclusion must be integrated with normative change interventions and intra-household power gains to produce durable reductions in IPV.
Early-Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Adverse Birth Outcomes in India: A Systematic Review
Air pollution and climate change pose major environmental threats in India, where rising levels of ambient and household pollutants disproportionately affect pregnant women and infants. Exposure to fine particulate matter, gaseous pollutants and biomass fuel emissions has been linked to adverse birth outcomes, yet evidence remains scattered. This systematic review and meta-analysis consolidates existing research to assess the association between prenatal and early-life exposure to air pollution and adverse birth outcomes in the Indian context. from 2010 to June 2025. Eligible studies examined at least two themes: air pollution, climate change, and adverse birth outcomes (low birth weight, preterm birth, mortality, or early-life exposure) within India. Data were synthesized across study designs, pollutant types, exposure sources and reported health outcomes. Household exposure from solid cooking fuels, poor ventilation and indoor smoke was independently linked to reduced mean birthweight, increased low birth weight (LBW) prevalence, higher occurrence of preterm birth and elevated risk of stillbirth. The evidence strongly supports integrated action like combining clean air policies, climate adaptation strategies, clean cooking initiatives and maternal–child health programs, to mitigate risk and protect vulnerable populations. Strengthening national frameworks such as NCAP and NPCCHH with maternal and neonatal health evidence is essential to reduce pollution-related inequities and improve long-term population health.
Exploring Disparities in WASH Inclusion Across Socioeconomic Strata in Rural India: Implications for Sustainable Development Goal (2030)
Access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) is not just a matter of convenience but a foundation that significantly impacts health, disease burden, social equity, and economic development. The absence of adequate WASH facilities burdens public health systems and hampers economic productivity. This research paper delves into understanding the disparities in WASH inclusion across different socioeconomic strata in rural India and their implications for sustainable development. We discuss the critical role of socioeconomic inclusion in fostering sustainable development and economic prosperity by using data from the 69th, 76th, and 78th rounds of the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) conducted in 2012, 2018, and 2021. The study focuses on twenty states to analyse trends and identify the socio-economic groups that have lacked accessibility to WASH over the years. These states are selected based on their representation in the national sample for all three NSSO rounds. The findings highlight uneven progress across states and inequalities among various social groups and expenditure quartiles, revealing that disadvantaged communities, particularly Scheduled Tribes (ST), Other Backward Classes (OBC), and lower expenditure quartiles, lack adequate access to clean drinking water, sanitation facilities, and hygiene practices. We project the percentage coverage of WASH facilities in 2030 - the UN's target year to achieve Sustainable Development Goals, and show the necessary acceleration to reach the 100% coverage target. The study concludes that targeted interventions are urgently needed to address the identified disparities and calls for policy measures that focus on the most vulnerable sections of society to achieve sustainable and equitable growth.
Ghettoization of Municipal Sanitation Workers in Mumbai: A Case of Occupational Segregation
The “religion” and “caste” identities are features of ghettoization in India. But its urban space has an added feature of occupational segregation, particularly the Municipal Sanitation Workers (MSWs) characterized by caste stereotype and socioeconomic adversity. An investigation on this count in Mumbai city reveals some stark realities. In an attempt to examine the possible ghettoization of MSWs in Mumbai, we gathered information from 540 MSWs in six municipal wards that asserts a majority of MSWs as migrants from various parts of India to Mumbai city. These workers reside in the ghettoized communities in Mumbai, particularly in labour colonies exclusively developed for them that not only have an unhygienic environment but also proximity to hazardous places. Characterization of this particular occupational group suggests an intersectionality of caste, migration and occupation resulting in their ghettoization. Evidence emerging from this enquiry suggests that sanitation workers have been ghettoized for generations and trapped in a vicious cycle of poor education, low living standards, deteriorating health condition, poverty and lack of alternative employment that have retained them in the same profession. This unfolds a need for understanding of sustained adversity and its implied clustering to imagine pathways of socio-economic mobility for certain occupations in urban India.
Reimagining Policy Frameworks: The Role of Higher Education Governance in Advancing Equity in South Africa
This study critically examines the role of governance frameworks in shaping equity outcomes within the South African higher education system. Drawing on a qualitative, interpretive research design, the study integrates policy document analysis, comparative multi-case analysis of nine universities, and secondary qualitative data derived from stakeholder submissions. Key national policy frameworks, including the Higher Education Act (1997) and the Ministerial Statement on University Funding (2020), are analysed to assess the alignment between policy intent and institutional realities. The findings reveal persistent structural inequalities, including misalignment between policy and institutional capacity, inequitable funding distribution, tensions between autonomy and accountability, limited stakeholder participation, and restricted policy adaptability. Evidence suggests that performance-based funding and standardised governance approaches disproportionately advantage historically well-resourced institutions while constraining historically disadvantaged institutions and universities of technology. In response, the study proposes a Governance Adaptability Model that integrates contextual differentiation, stakeholder inclusion, and strategic adaptability. The model advocates for differentiated governance contracts, equity-based funding mechanisms, participatory governance audits, and continuous feedback systems. By embedding flexibility and inclusivity into governance frameworks, the model offers a context-sensitive approach to advancing equity and institutional responsiveness in South Africa’s higher education sector.
Publicly Funded Health Insurance Schemes and Inequalities in Health Insurance Coverage for Inpatient Care in India
India, known for its low government spending on health, has been considering Publicly Funded Health Insurance (PFHI) as a mechanism to improve access to inpatient care and reduce out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) since 2008. Despite these and other health financing reforms, the country remains among the world's highest OOPE countries. In 2018, the government of India revamped and relaunched the existing PFHI, aiming to cover 500 million beneficiaries from the bottom 40 per cent of the Indian population. This study aims to understand the coverage of current PFHI schemes and their contribution to providing health security coverage for vulnerable sections of the country. The nationally representative NFHS-5 (2019-21) data on health insurance participation were used for the study. This information was available for 724,115 women aged 15-49 years and 101,839 men aged 15-54 years who participated in this survey. Results indicate that PFHI coverage was higher among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups and was associated with lower socioeconomic inequality in health insurance coverage in several states. However, the study does not assess whether such coverage translates into financial protection against healthcare expenditures. Further, states with higher PFHI coverage tended to exhibit lower pro-rich inequality in health insurance coverage. A substantial proportion of marginalised population was covered under PFHI schemes. Addressing the interstate disparities in implementation is seen as a key challenge for PFHI in attaining the 500 million target beneficiaries in the near future.
The role of breastfeeding practices in nutritional outcomes among infants and children, Uttar Pradesh, India
Child undernutrition and anaemia remain major public health concerns in India, especially in Uttar Pradesh. The present study assesses trends in optimal breastfeeding indicators and nutritional outcomes among children in Uttar Pradesh by using the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data. However, it utilised data from the latest round of NFHS to assess the relationship between optimal breastfeeding practices. Bivariate analysis, chi-square tests, and multiple regression models were applied to estimate associations and adjusted odds ratios. Results show that exclusive breastfeeding was significantly associated with higher odds of stunting (AOR: 1.16) and underweight (AOR: 1.14), but not with wasting. Similarly, the minimum acceptable diet showed no statistically significant association with nutritional outcomes. Adjusted analyses yielded significant odds ratios across all models, with consistent evidence of protective or adverse associations. In the EBF model, the odds of wasting (AOR = 1.04; 95% CI: 0.90–1.20) were not statistically significant. Similar non-significant patterns were observed across all outcomes in the MAD model, including anaemia. These results suggest that while breastfeeding practices are important, they alone may not substantially influence nutritional outcomes. Broader socioeconomic, maternal, and child care determinants appear to play a more critical role. The study highlights the need for integrated interventions addressing structural factors, alongside promoting optimal feeding practices, to effectively reduce undernutrition and anaemia in young children.
Association between intimate partner violence and women’s nutritional status in India: A cross-sectional analysis of NFHS-5 data
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health concern with well-documented effects on women’s health, yet its relationship with nutritional status remains underexplored in low- and middle-income countries. This study examines the association between IPV and women’s nutritional status in India using data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019-21). The analysis includes 62,381 currently married women aged 18-49 years who were included in the domestic violence module. Nutritional status was assessed using body mass index (BMI), categorised as chronic energy deficiency (BMI < 18.5 kg/m²) and overweight/obesity (BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m²). Logistic regression models were used to estimate the associations between physical, sexual, and emotional IPV and nutritional outcomes, adjusting for socio-demographic and behavioural factors. Overall, 19.5 percent of women were overweight or obese, while 7.7 percent were undernourished. Women exposed to physical IPV had higher odds of chronic energy deficiency in adjusted models (AOR: 1.11, 95% CI: 1.03-1.20), whereas no significant association was observed with overweight/obesity. Associations for sexual and emotional IPV were not statistically significant after adjustment. Socioeconomic factors, particularly education, wealth, and residence, were strong determinants of nutritional status. These findings suggest that IPV, especially physical violence, contributes to undernutrition among women in India through pathways of material deprivation and psychosocial stress. Integrating IPV prevention with nutrition and social protection interventions is essential for improving women’s health outcomes.
Geographic Disparities in ICDS Implementation and Child Malnutrition in India
This study investigates the socioeconomic, demographic and geospatial factors influencing the utilisation of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and the prevalence of malnutrition among children under five in India. Using data from the National Family Health Survey (3 & 4), which includes a nationally representative sample of 238,945 children aged 0–59 months from 601,509 households, the findings highlight a slow decline in malnutrition rates, with stunting and underweight prevalence reducing by 9 per cent and 7 per cent respectively since NFHS-3 was conducted a decade ago. Analysis of spatial variation reveals significant clustering in ICDS utilisation and malnutrition, strongly associated with maternal education levels, higher proportions of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and children of higher birth orders (three or more). Regression models incorporating spatial weights significantly improved predictive accuracy, underscoring the role of geospatial determinants in shaping health outcomes. Key factors negatively impacting children’s nutritional status included maternal low body mass index, low birth weight, higher birth order and caesarean deliveries, all exhibiting notable spatial dependence with stunting and underweight. These findings underscore the need for geographically targeted, equity-focused interventions to enhance ICDS utilisation and address persistent disparities in child nutrition outcomes across India.
Contraceptive Morbidity among Current Users of Modern Temporary Methods in India
The past decade has seen an increasing concern on modern contraception methods for preventing unwanted pregnancy and to attain the desirable number of children. While, the use of contraception has certainly helped to achieve the desired family and many others, it has also increased the possibility of contraceptive morbidities. The District Level Household and Facility Survey, 2007-08 data have been utilized for this study. The study finding shows, women’s health problems such as weakness/inability to work, body ache/backache, abdominal pain, excessive bleeding, and irregular periods are significantly higher in the rural areas compared to their counterpart in urban areas. Furthermore, the result depicts that, while the use of temporary modern contraception methods is higher in an urban setting, the contraceptive morbidity is found to be higher in the rural setting. Use of temporary modern contraception methods is found to be highly associated with contraceptive morbidities. The results show that the educational level of women, their economic status and place of residence are statistically associated with contraceptive morbidity in India.
Religion and social transformation: Christianity in Jyotirao Phule’s life and work
Jyotirao Phule was a social reformer of Maharashtra in the nineteenth century. He sought to improve the condition betterment of the scheduled castes and tribes. He noted that they were victims of Brahmin domination. He was convinced that lack of education kept them in their deplorable condition. Hence, he worked for upliftment through education. He was associated with Christian missionaries and institutions. Therefore, Christianity played an important role in his life and work. Brahmins alleged that he had become a Christian because he was critical of them, undermining their dominance. But such allegations were false. He was a Hindu with sympathies for Christianity and Christian missionaries as he saw much good in them.
Prevalence of chronic diseases among older adults in EAG and non-EAG states of India and its contextual determinants
Population aging is an emerging worldwide phenomenon. As a result of demographic and epidemiology transitions, life expectancy has increased across the globe. With the reflection of aging and increasing global population, chronic (non-communicable) diseases have become a global health challenge. Their burden becoming major public health challenges is more pronounced in low-performing states or developed states in India. Therefore, the present study assesses the prevalence of chronic diseases among older adults in Empowered Action Group (EAG) and non-EAG states, and their contextual factors. The study uses the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI), Wave-1 data, the survey was conducted during 2017-18. Bi-variate, spatial analyses, and logistic regression models have been carried out to assess the prevalence of chronic diseases among older adults. The prevalence of at least one chronic disease among older adults in India was about 55 per cent and it was about 50 per cent and 59 per cent in EAG and non-EAG states respectively. The prevalence of hypertension (26%) was the leading chronic disease among older adults, followed by gastrointestinal problems (18%), arthritis (16%), diabetes (12%) and chronic lung diseases (6%). The odds of chronic diseases among urban older adults were 39 per cent (Odds Ratio [OR]=1.39; 95% CI:1.29-1.50) and 30% (OR=1.30; 95% CI:1.24-1.35) higher than their rural counterparts in both EAG and non-EAG states respectively. The study concludes that major contextual factors of chronic diseases were higher age, smoking and using smokeless tobacco, physical inactivity, never working, lack of education, Muslim religion, poor economic status and residing in urban areas in both EAG and non-EAG states.
Economic burden of diabetes patients in Latur, India: A Cross Sectional Study
Diabetes mellitus is a modern-day epidemic, silently negative affecting the household economy. The epidemical diabetic burden has increased with the economic burden worldwide. The present study tries to estimate the direct and indirect economic burden of diabetes among diabetes patients. It utilises the empirical data collected from 505 self-reported diabetic patients during May to November 2017. Bivariate and Multivariate techniques were used for data analysis. The results show that more than one fourth of the household monthly income is incurred on direct health expenditure on diabetics. The study reveals that there is a disproportionate economic burden of diabetes among people belonging to rural areas from poor households, illiterate, currently not working patients and patients belonging to social groups including SCs/STs. From a policy point of view there is an urgent need to strengthen public health infrastructure at various community levels (viz. sub-centres, PHCs, and CHCs) with the facility of blood sugar tests and accessibility of medication by subsidized rate to the diabetic person. There is a need for awareness and coverage of community health insurance schemes.
Pattern and Determinants of Maternal Health Care Utilization among Muslim and Non-Muslim mothers in India
Despite progress in many fields, India is lagging behind to achieve Sustainable Development Goals by fulfilling maternal health and improvement in Maternal Mortality Rates, especially sections of the society which often facing social exclusion to access healthcare services. Muslim women suffer from patriarchy, stigma and low utilization of maternal and child health services. Keeping this in mind, our study explores the maternal healthcare services utilization in terms of ante natal care visits, place of delivery and professional assistance at the time of home birth. It also trying to understand the socio-economic determinants that restrict them to use the services compared with the mothers belonging to other religions. The data from the fourth round of National Family Health Survey has been studied. Bivariate technique, logistic regression and Oaxaca decomposition methods have been used. Muslim mothers are lower in terms of receiving ante natal care compared with the women belonging to other religion. But in terms of institutional births and availing professional assistance at the time of home birth, they lie slightly in a better position. A significant rural-urban difference has been observed in the case of institutional births. Maternal and child health services utilization steadily increased with education, employment, mass media exposure, partner’s occupation and educational level. Redefined policy measures on maternal health would be a key step towards improving utilization of MCH services.
Effect of Multiple Health Risk Factors on Non-Communicable Diseases among Older Adults: Insights from the SAGE Wave-1
The rise in health risk factors is a serious concern, adding to the worldwide burden of chronic diseases and affecting public health, particularly among older people. This explores the multidimensional nature of multiple health risk parameters and their relationship with non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in older adults in SAGE nations. We used data from the WHO’s study of Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) Survey Wave-1 (2007-2010), and analysed the information of 33,922 (15,594 males and 18,328 females) people aged 50 years or above in six SAGE countries. We created a composite score of multiple health risk factors and NCDs by socioeconomic characteristics using bivariate and multivariate statistics models. The study finds that 5 per cent have no health risk factors and about 70 per cent are living with 2-5 health risk factors in all SAGE countries. The older adults living with six or more health risk factors were found to be the highest in South Africa (26%) followed by India (22%). The findings also highlight the relatively low burden of health risk factors among Chinese older adults. The increase in a number of health risk factors increases the NCDs. Prioritizing health education and socioeconomic upliftment can lower the health risk factors and enhance health outcomes for older persons.
Association of Consanguineous Marriage with Domestic Violence among Women in India: Evidence from the National Family Health Survey 2015-16
This study investigates the correlation between domestic violence and marriage types in India using data from the fourth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4). It reveals that the prevalence of any domestic violence is notably higher among women who had consanguineous marriage compared with those in non-consanguineous union. This pattern persists across various forms of violence. Physical violence emerges as the most prevalent, overshadowing emotional and sexual violence. The findings underscore that marrying one's cousin does not offer protection against abuse for married women, highlighting a concerning aspect often obscured by the perception of familial ties. This heightened risk of domestic violence requires targeted interventions that emphasises cultural sensitivity and the promotion of women's safety.
Rural Medical Practitioners: Who are They? What Do They Do? Should They Be Trained for Improvement? Evidence from Rural West Bengal
Private healthcare sector in rural India is often dominated by unqualified rural medical practitioners (RMPs). However, there is limited systematic evidence with regard to RMPs and their potential for an intervention to reduce their harmful practices and improve quality. This paper presents their brief profile. It critically examines their role and explore the need for an intervention for harm reduction and quality improvement. The sample included 104 RMPs, 765 household respondents, 188 Panchayat members and 48 ANMs. They are examined in terms of their knowledge, attitude and practice parameters. Results are analysed in the light of evidence from previous studies. Their knowledge varies by disease but for more than half of the difficult cases they seem to suggest right medicines. Users are generally satisfied with them with regard to effectiveness of treatment and price. Panchayat members and ANMs have mixed opinions but are in favour of a training programme to improve their work. They too feel the need for training but their expectations vary along with willingness to pay for it. RMPs are an essential and unavoidable component of rural health care in India, but their role should not be overemphasized. As a transitional arrangement, the initiative of training them must be explored but not tuned to institutionalise them so as to attract more people to join the RMP force.
My Body, Your Choice: Partner’s Age and Education as Determinants of Contraceptive Use in India
Many couples in low and middle-income countries would like to limit or delay their pregnancy but they do not have sufficient access to modern contraceptive methods. Although women mostly pay for unmet needs for family planning, they are often not considered as fertility decision makers by their partners. This paper aims to explore the role played by a partner’s age and education differences in explaining contraceptive use and unmet need among married couples in India. Data were drawn from the National Family Health Survey-4 survey and a stratified two-stage sample design was adopted to reach out to the surveyed households. A total of 63,696 couples aged 15-49 years of women and men aged 15-54 years were included in the analysis. Among the married couples included in the study, husbands were older and more educated than the wives. Mean and the standard deviation of the age of married couples was 4.84±3.87 &1.44±4.25 years. Woman with more education (OR=1.31) were more likely to use contraception methods than those who had no schooling. Unmet need for family planning was lesser among the couples where the husband was older (OR=0.89) compared with the couples where both were of the same age or wife was older. With the increasing wealth quantile, the use of contraceptive methods was growing from the poorest to the richest group (OR=2.0). According to our findings, not just individuals’ but couples’ characteristics matter in determining unmet needs for family planning and use of contraception.
Living Arrangements and Chronic Morbidity Among Older Adults in India: Evidence from a Large-scale Survey
This study examines the association between living arrangements and the prevalence of chronic morbidity (having ≥2 chronic conditions) among older adults in India. It has used the data of 9,852 persons aged 60 years and above from the survey of Building Knowledge Base on Population Aging in India (BKPAI) conducted in 2011. Bivariate and binary logistic regression analyses were employed to investigate the influence of confounding factors on morbidity. Regression models demonstrated that older adults living with children/others are more likely to suffer from chronic morbidity than those who are living alone. Chronic morbidity was the highest among 80 years and above age group (77.9%) than the other two age groups of 60-69 (57.6%) and 70-79 (66.3%) years. There is a strong association between increased morbidity and living arrangements of older adults. The high prevalence of morbidity observed among older adults living with children/others suggests that programmes and policies should also be oriented towards the living arrangements of older adults while framing the public health support system in India.
Regional Variations in Child Malnutrition in Uttar Pradesh
Malnutrition is a major health concern in most developing countries in children aged less than 5 years. Child malnutrition is generally considered as a condition of child being undernourished or underweight or overweight. As Uttar Pradesh (UP) has the largest proportion of the country’s malnourished children, the study of child nutrition is relevant. Very few studies have been done to look into the spatial pattern of child malnutrition in India and none has been done in UP. In this study, we analyse the regional variation in Uttar Pradesh with respect to child malnutrition and examine the determinants of child malnutrition. Economic inequality (wealth index, place of residence and maternal education), social structure of the society (social groups, religion and sex of child), source of drinking water and toilet facility are directly connected with the health of children. Using Multivariate Logistic Regression analysis on the data of NFHS-4, this paper examines the regional variation of child malnutrition in Uttar Pradesh. The overall picture is that the intra-state regional variation of child malnutrition is present in Uttar Pradesh. The problem of wasting and being underweight is very high in the southern region. The eastern region is the second most concerned area for child health. Maternal education has been found to be negatively associated with child malnutrition. Thus, there is a need to implement health programmes region-wise to eliminate malnutrition. Also, there is a need to put a greater focus on female literacy which is low in Uttar Pradesh.
Influence of Childcare Practices on Nutritional Status of Children in India: An Analysis of National Family Health Survey-4
Appropriate childcare practices (CCPs) play a crucial role in achieving optimal health outcomes in early childhood as well as in later life. However, poor childcare practices can lead to stunted growth, immune dysfunction, delayed mental development and significantly increased risk of infectious diseases. In countries like India, the problems of undernutrition are always considered in terms of household food security without recognizing the importance of CCPs, which play a vital role in influencing the nutritional status of children. Therefore, using data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), this study assesses the effect of CCP on the nutritional status of children aged 6-36 months in India. The principal component analysis was used to create CCP index and generalized linear model was used to assess the association of nutritional indices with CCPs. The results showed a positive association between CCPs and child nutritional indices such as height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ), weight-for-height Z-score (WHZ) and weight-for-age Z-score (WAZ), after controlling for potential confounding factors. Therefore, promoting CCPs that not only include feeding practices but also health services like immunization could improve child health and nutrition in India.
Do Acute Health Care Needs of the Poor Crowd Out Their Chronic Care Utilization? Evidence from Rural India
In rural India, much of the public health facilities are better equipped to provide treatment for either acute ailments or reproductive and child health needs. Chronic diseases are treated mainly in secondary or tertiary hospitals located in sub-division or district headquarters or in the big cities, which makes their treatment more expensive. This paper uses demographic and health surveillance data from Birbhum to test whether there is a crowd-out effect on treatment of chronic diseases in the event of acute ailments in the household. We also test whether households ration the amount they spend on care for chronic ailments based on age and gender. With limited financial means, households prioritize treatment of acute conditions, reduce resources and efforts to treat chronic health care needs and these trade-offs are particularly strong in poorest households, and most disadvantageous to the elderly members within the households.
Eye Injuries among the Tannery Workers of Kanpur City, India
Occupational health hazards among the workers in the tannery industries are well known. However, a study on eye problems/injury among tannery workers is scanty. They are exposed to hazardous chemicals which is directly associated with their health. This study examined the prevalence of eye problems/injuries and their determinants among them. A total of 284 tannery and 289 non-tannery workers were interviewed during January-June 2015 from Kanpur using a three-stage sampling design. Bivariate and logistic regression analysis have been applied for data analysis. Results show that the prevalence of eye problems was higher among tannery workers than non-tannery workers. More than one-fifth (22.5%) of the tannery workers suffered from cloudy and blurry vision. The risk to them was significantly higher among those with eleven or more years of work experience (OR=3.32; p<0.05). They had exposure to dry finishing work (OR=2.65; p<0.1). Tannery workers' exposure to a moderate or high level of chemicals in the air (OR=2.08; p<0.1) resulting in eye injuries is higher than their counterparts elsewhere. In conclusion, they should be trained and self-motivated to use preventive measures to reduce chemical and dust exposure such as wearing protective glasses. Their ocular health must be monitored periodically for adequate and timely treatment. In this regard, health education and safety training are essential to prevent eye injuries.
Exposure to Mass Media and Awareness and Correct Knowledge on Mode of Transmission of Tuberculosis in India
WHO estimated that 10 million people fell sick with Tuberculosis (TB) globally in the year 2019 and most of them live in Asia, and India accounts for one-fourth of the TB deaths globally. This study uses data of 6,99,686 women aged 15-49 years and 1,12,122 men aged 15-54 years from the National Family Health Survey-4, (NFHS-4) 2015-16. Eighty per cent of respondents, irrespective of gender, had reported that they ever heard of tuberculosis. Seventeen per cent of women as well as men did not report the correct mode of transmission of TB. Women and men both show almost the same pattern of exposure to mass media and it has significant effect on TB awareness, knowledge and misconception on TB. Likelihood on awareness of TB and perception of TB cure is low among radio listeners. It is clear that audio visual media has more impact on awareness generation and reduces the misconception on TB transmission. Using of 360-degree approach with social behavioural change at the community may help to promote desired behaviour. Government needs to accelerate the TB programme from clinical approach to human centric behavioural approach to provide discrimination free environment to the TB survivors.
‘Other-Gender’ in India: An Analysis of 2011 Census Data
In spite of human rights protection given to the “other-gender” population (transgender) worldwide, they still constitute a deserted community which faces a significant occupational challenges around the world. In India, the other-gender community encompasses individuals with a variety of gender identities forming a culturally unique gender group. Although they have always remained an integral part of the society from the very ancient time, unfortunately their existence is grappling with abject poverty, illiteracy, hatred and mockery. Such stigmatisation and segregation from society have left them to compromise with the employment opportunities available. This paper used the data on ‘other-gender’ released by Census of India for the first time. The 2011 Indian Census reported approximately 4,87,803 individuals belonging to the other-gender category in the country. This data demonstrate that the other-gender community exhibits lower level of literacy and labour force participation when compared with the general population. In this paper, we endeavour to conceptualize these findings and engage in a discussion of the inherent limitations of the data.
Is Financial Inclusion of Education Providers Cognizant: A study based on University employees
Financial inclusion is recognized as one of the major goals of development and its importance is increasingly felt in the current scenario. The government efforts are largely directed towards increasing the banked population; thereby ignoring a considerable section of population and narrowing the concept of financial inclusion. Hence, the present study extends the existing studies to education providers, i.e., university employees working in close proximity to financial services and potential labor force. The study based on a primary survey of 150 employees of University of Rajasthan reveals that modern means of banking do not enjoy universal acceptance. Saving and investment behavior of employees is governed by precautionary motive and non-financial assets. A financial inclusion index constructed using PCA reveals that employees aged 41 years and above, less educated and earning up to 50000 per month depicted low financial inclusion. Informal sources particularly media emerged as the major source of information resulting into less informed financial decision-making. Thus, the study highlights limited role of education for high level of financial inclusion and cautions against preconceived notion of considering a specific sub-group as the need of interventionsFinancial inclusion is recognized as one of the major goals of development and its importance is increasingly felt in the current scenario. The government efforts are largely directed towards increasing the banked population; thereby ignoring a considerable section of population and narrowing the concept of financial inclusion. Hence, the present study extends the existing studies to education providers, i.e., university employees working in close proximity to financial services and potential labor force. The study based on a primary survey of 150 employees of University of Rajasthan reveals that modern means of banking do not enjoy universal acceptance. Saving and investment behavior of employees is governed by precautionary motive and non-financial assets. A financial inclusion index constructed using PCA reveals that employees aged 41 years and above, less educated and earning up to 50000 per month depicted low financial inclusion. Informal sources particularly media emerged as the major source of information resulting into less informed financial decision-making. Thus, the study highlights limited role of education for high level of financial inclusion and cautions against preconceived notion of considering a specific sub-group as the need of interventions
Role and Barriers of Integrated Child Development Service in Bihar, India
Children face a lousy situation due to lack of food and nutrition in the early age of life, the most crucial period when social, emotional, language, cognitive, physical/motor development and life-long learning are laid. The results by analysing NFHS data portrayed that only nine per cent of children aged 0-71 months had availed any services from AWCs, whereas the health check-ups (0.7%) and measurement of weight at AWC (0.5%) services were least likely to be accessed in Bihar (2005-06), while it improved significantly in the latest round of the survey. Poor sections of the society have a better access to the services provided by AWCs. Atmosphere of the AWCs is not up to the mark and requires quality improvement. Poor registration in them is not only due to lack of infrastructure but also to cultural and ecological factors. Children are without basic amenities, poor lighting, and hot humid conditions. If the AWCs get basic amenities, children would be more attracted to join them. With the provision of electricity, workers would be able to take audio and video classes under pre-schooling. Intervention for nutrition also requires multi-sectoral attention.
Intimate Partner Violence-Driven Fatal Injuries among Women in India: Empirical Evidence from National Family Health Survey 2015-2016
Increasing evidence of violence against women in India is reported in recent studies. However, there is lack of evidence on violence-driven injuries among women in India. The current study examines the prevalence and risk factors of violence against women and violence-driven injuries in India using the fourth round of National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) data, conducted during 2015-16. Descriptive statistics, bivariate and multivariate analysis were carried out to see the associations of injuries and sociodemographic factors. The prevalence of lifetime experience of violence-driven injuries are: cuts or bruises were the most common injuries (21.4%) of IPV, followed by severe burn (7.8 %), eye injuries/sprains/dislocations/burns (5.4%), and deep wounds/broken bones/broken teeth/any other serious injuries (3.4%). Overall, 24.6 per cent of the of IPV victims have experienced some kind an injury in lifetime. Older women aged 35-49 years (OR = 1.247; CI=1.096-1.419), having 5 or more children (OR=1.244; CI=1.010-1.532), belonging to scheduled castes (OR=1.363; CI= 1.212-1.533) and belonging to Muslim society (OR=1.229; CI=1.075-1.405) were significantly more likely to have violencerelated injuries than their counterparts. The study demonstrated that considerable proportion of women experienced violence and violence-related injuries. Risk factors identified were women’s lack of education, alcoholism, having more than one child and poor socio-economic household status. Violence-driven injuries are among the most prominent public health problems which need urgent attention and strategic interventions to prevent them.